Behavior Confirmation

Introduction Social encounters can create, support or nullify a behavioral expectation about another group. If a target exhibits behavior that is consistent with his group, then a stereotype will manifest. This leads to a phenomenon known as the self-fulfilling prophecy. Numerous researches exist on why a person would confirm a certain stereotype about them. The focus of the literature review will be on theoretical and psychological models that explain how expectancy confirmation occurs.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Behavior Confirmation specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Models and theories Self fulfilling prophecies may occur prior to an interaction with a member of the stereotyped group, during and after the interaction. Prior to an interaction with a target from a biased group, a perceiver may already form opinions about the target as explained by Darley and Fazio (1980). This perception may cause t he respective perceiver to cancel any interaction with the target if he is in a position of power. As a result, the perceiver will not give the target the benefit of a doubt and will maintain the stereotype. Furthermore, a lack of interaction with the target will deny him an opportunity to change the behavior and thus negate behavior expectancies about his group. Conversely, Kiefer Sekaquaptewa (2006) believe that self fulfilling prophecies occur prior to an interaction owing to behavioral expectations in the targeted group. If a person fears that examiners will evaluate his performance on the basis of his social group, then this could create apprehensions, which undermine the subject’s performance. These implicit expectations about one’s behavior often emanate from social cues, such as television and newspaper programs or advertisements (Lee et. al., 2011). For instance, most media outlets will market engineering and math as male-oriented subjects. Therefore, a subje ct will enter the examination room with that stereotype in mind. She will worry that her examiner will also possess these biases and this will lead to negative outcomes. While Darley and Fazio (1980) blame perceivers for behavior confirmation prior to an interaction between the perceiver and the target, Kiefer Sekaquaptewa (2006) think that the targets are responsible for self fulfilling prophecies. Lee et al. (2011) bring in another dimension to this debate. They believe that stereotype threat, or the belief that others will judge one in accordance to group stereotypes, will cause a target to avoid an interaction altogether. However, this largely depends on whether the potential target is a member of the stereotype out-group or in-group. In these circumstances, a perceiver will assume that the target refrained from interacting with him or her because they possess the stereotype and this will cause them to maintain the bias. During an interaction, it is possible for the target to b ehave in a totally different manner from the concerned stereotype. However, the perceiver may still maintain the stereotype because of a series of reasons. Scholars use their theoretical backgrounds to explain why this occurs. Gurwitz and Dodge (1977) explain that contact can maintain stereotypes if the pattern and the content of evidence, in the interaction, are in line with the behavior expectations.Advertising Looking for research paper on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More These researchers carried out a study among a group of university students concerning sorority membership. They found that the pattern of dispersion, as well as the magnitude of the evidence, led many perceivers to hold stereotypes about a group even when behavior contradicted these expectations. If contrary evidence about the perceiver’s expectations is prevalent in several people as opposed to one person, then the perceiver will hold th e stereotype. The scholars believe that a person will believe in a stereotype every time a stereotype manifests regardless of the magnitude of the stereotype. On the other hand, if the degree of disconfirming evidence is quite large, then this will lead to nullification of the stereotype irrespective of the pattern of dispersion. According to Gurwitz and Dodge (1977), a perceiver will not change his mind about certain stereotypes regardless of whether the target exhibits non-stereotype behavior because the magnitude of the change is not sufficient to warrant modification. Additionally, the number of interactions that the person has with members of the stereotyped group also comes into play. Conversely, Allen et. al. (2009) as well as Darley and Fazio (1980) believe that a perceiver will still hold certain views about a target irrespective of contrary behavior because of nitpicking evidence. The individual will claim self fulfilling prophecies by interpreting the behavior of the targ et unfairly. In other words, the perceiver will rely on situational factors to explain the inconsistency. Alternatively, the person may simply choose certain patterns that are consistent with the stereotype and deliberately ignore the ones that contradict them. Allen et. al. (2009) use the regulatory focus theory to explain why some people may choose to hold the self-fulfilling conviction even when subjects act in contravention to their expectations. These authors believe that when a perceiver has a depleted mental capacity, he or she will focus on stereotype inconsistent information. However, when operating under full processing capacity, a person will only dwell on facts that are consistent with the stereotype. According to these scholars, perceivers will change their perception about targets if their mental capacity is overfull. Once they are operating at full processing capacity, they will have more time to look for stereotype confirming behavior.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Behavior Confirmation specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In certain circumstances, it may appear that a target has confirmed the behavior, if an external observer were watching over the interaction between the two parties. This scenario is objective behavior confirmation, where a neutral observer would concur with the perceiver concerning a target’s behavior. The observer would notice that the subject is supporting the stereotype. According to Darley and Fazio (1970), Lee et al. (2011), Chen and Bargh (1997) and Leander et al. (2011), a person may engage in self fulfilling behavior because he is merely responding in kind to the behavior of the perceiver. However, these scholars disagree on the reasoning behind that response. Darley and Fazio (1970) explain that if a subject believes that he should respond in kind to the perceiver’s behavior, then he will do so even if this leads to the exhi bition of a certain stereotype. For instance, if an interviewer is cold towards a woman interviewee, then this individual will respond to the disconnectedness in kind. This may cause the interviewer to presume that females are unenthusiastic job candidates even though the person caused the reaction. Leander et. al. (2011) affirm that people may create certain behaviors in others when they mimic their behavior. Mimicking another person for social lubrication causes that person to become sensitive about the opinions of others. This causes the individual to act in a way that substantiates stereotypes. Lee et. al. (2011) believe that an interaction between a person with a bias and one who is aware of the bias will lead to confirmation of the behavior because this creates a state of tension and apprehension concerning the interaction. For instance, female purchasers will be anxious about price inflation by male mechanics because they perceive females as ignorant in this field. Their anxi ety causes them to underperform or fail to show up. In essence, this confirms the behavior of the perceiver. Chen and Bargh (1997) carried out an experiment in which they wanted to establish causes of self-fulfilling prophecies. They designed a test in which perceivers saw African American faces and received implicit cues on the same. The perceivers rated the African American subjects as hostile even though the perceivers caused those reactions by their negative reactions towards the group. Therefore, self-fulfilling prophecies may simply be by-products of certain stereotypes that lead to a perpetual stereotype cycle concerning the group. The observer underestimates his role in causing the stereotype and simply attributes it to the target.Advertising Looking for research paper on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Perhaps one of the most critical aspects of the interaction between a perceiver and another person, who belongs to a disadvantaged group, is the capacity of the perceiver to alter the target’s behavior permanently. In essence, self fulfilling prophecy becomes a permanent observation in the stereotyped group because of past interactions. Keller (2007) uses his regulatory focus theory to explain why one interaction may lead to future behavior confirmations in targeted groups. He explains that when an individual holds a prevention-focused approach to behavior modification, then he will use past experiences to protect himself. Prevention-focused people dwell on security rather than gain as their primary motivator. Therefore, if a situation increases their level of security, then they will engage in it even it perpetuates a certain stereotype about them. They will use past experiences to judge how effectively an interaction protects them. Therefore, if a perceiver or the general s ituation threatened their security, then they will react in a stereotypical manner. Darley and Fazio (1980) believe that when a target has interacted with a perceiver in a way that led to the stereotype, the target will form an opinion about such interactions. In the future, this target will bring those experiences into similar situations and thus perpetuate the stereotype. For instance, an African American male may have experienced negative interactions with law-enforcement officials in the past. He or she may have responded aggressively towards the officer. It is likely that such a person will be aggressive whenever he comes in contact with other law enforcers because of experience from his past. Kiefer and Sekaquaptewa (2006) also have their own explanation on why a negative interaction between a perceiver and target can lead to perpetual self fulfilling prophecies. These scholars argue that women who believe themselves to be biased through previous experiences, will perform poor ly in tests even in the absence of stereotype cues. Therefore, the interaction between them and their assessors affected their association of task performance and membership in a disadvantaged group. These scholars thus believe that negative interactions with stereotypical groups leads to negative identity formation and self fulfilling behavior in the future. Conclusion Literature shows that stereotypes are not what they seem. Mental processes in the target or the perceiver that lead to the exhibition of the behavior cause self confirming behavior. This may sometimes lead to a permanent display of the stereotype and thus cause a reign of error. References Allen, T., Sgerman, J., Frederica, C. Stroessner, S. (2009). Stereotype strength and attentional bias: Preference for confirming versus disconfirming information depends on processing capacity. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45(2), 1081-1087. Chen, M. Bargh, J. (1997). The self fulfilling consequences of automatic ste reotype activation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 33(JS971329), 541=560. Darley, J. Fazio, R. (1980). Expectancy conformation processes arising in the social interaction sequence. American Psychologist, 35(10), 867-881. Gurwitz, S. Dodge, K. (1977). Effects of confirmations and disconfirmations on stereotype-based attributes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35(7), 495-500. Keller, J. (2007). When negative stereotypic expectancies turn into challenge or threat: The moderating role of regulatory focus. Swiss Journal of Psychology, 66(3), 163-168. Kiefer, A. Sekaquaptewa, D. (2006). Implicit stereotypes and women’s math performance: How implicit gender-math stereotypes influence women’s susceptibility to stereotype threat. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 2(12)1-15. Leander, P., Chartrand, T. Wood, W. (2011). Mind your mannerisms: Behavioral mimicry elicits stereotype conformity. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 47(9), 19 5-201. Lee, K., Kim, H., Vohs, K. (2011). Stereotype threat in the marketplace: Consumer anxiety and purchase intentions. Journal of Consumer Research, 8, 1-17. This research paper on Behavior Confirmation was written and submitted by user Jaylyn B. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Early Day States essays

Early Day States essays Pennsylvania and Carolina both shared and differed in cultural characteristics. One similarity shared between Pennsylvania and Carolina was religion. The two colonies exemplified religious toleration. The colonies were inhabited primarily by Protestants including Lutherans, Baptists, Methodists, and Presbyterians. Colonists in Pennsylvania were often given tests to verify they were not Roman Catholic. Meanwhile, the intruding Protestants into Carolina caused much commotion with the Catholic Spaniards of Florida. This led to many wars. The types of commerce found in Pennsylvania and Carolina were very similar. The founders of the Colonies were very smart. They built the major cities along rivers. Philadelphia was developed on what is today known as the Delaware River, and Charleston was developed on what is today known as the Ashley River and on the Cooper River. This fact enabled the two cities to become major seaports for exporting goods. The colonies exported mass amounts of grains. Timber also served as an important source of industry in the colonies. Lumber was used from building houses to shipbuilding. Often referred to as shrewd business people, the colonies got the job done as far as commerce goes. The Carolina and Pennsylvania colonies also had striking differences. The topic of military defense is a prime example. Pennsylvania was laid back. They had no means of military defense. Military defense was of no use to the passive, and peace-seeking people found in Pennsylvania. Meanwhile, in the Carolinas, military defense was essential to every day life. Carolina developed a strong, sound, and efficient military defense. The difference in military defense might have resulted from the difference the two had in Indian relations. In Pennsylvania, the people tried their best to live harmoniously and at peace with the Indians. William Penn himself bought land from the Indians. Many peace treaties ...

Oklahoma Indian Territory on the Trail of Tears Essay

Oklahoma Indian Territory on the Trail of Tears - Essay Example Tomorrow, all the living and non-living things will be strange to me. How can I part with the rivers and trees in my locality? Will I be able to survive in a different land? My future will give an apt answer. Here, I shall share some facts about my tribe, my motherland and my feelings on the possible removal to Oklahoma Indian Territory on the Trail of Tears. Facts about my tribe The history of my tribe/community is interconnected with history of the early inhabitants of the United States of America. Earlier, we did not face any problem from others because we were self-sufficient. One can see that my tribe is the largest ethnic group within the tribal groups in America. My ancestral heritage is deeply rooted in the old Cherokee Nation or The Nation (18th and 19th Centuries). As pointed out, we were self-sufficient because we used to consider the nature as our mother. Besides, the members of the Old Cherokee Nation did not consider nature as an unending source of resources that can be exploited without any solid reason. But the people who live in large cities and towns are not able to understand the relationship between ethnic communities and nature. To be specific, our rituals, customs, and the events in day to day life are interconnected with nature. Earlier, we used to live in the Appalachia region. To be specific, the leaders of our tribal group were not aware of the importance of unity among different groups and the need of a strong central authority. On the other side, the tribal chiefs appointed by the British and the American authorities had little influence among the members of our community. Now, the government is planning to implement the Indian Removal Act of 1830 to relocate us to another part of America. In short, we are facing a number of problems related to survival because we are forced to relocate to the Trail of Tears. Burgan stated that â€Å"The U.S. government had forced them from their homes and set them on this march of about 800 miles ( 1,287 kilometers)† (4). If one is not so attached to one’s motherland, relocation is not a major problem. But my life is interconnected with my motherland. So, I do not feel confident to declare that I can survive in a different land. Now I feel so attached to my motherland because I am aware of the fact that relocation is unavoidable. About my motherland My motherland is in New Echota, within North America. One can easily identify that my motherland is rich in natural beauty and fertility because two beautiful rivers (say, Coosawattee and Conasauga) are flowing through my mother land. Besides, both the rivers join together and form another river, namely Oostanaula. All these rivers flow to another river, namely Coosa. The modern people provide less value to the importance of rivers in tribal life because they are not aware of the influence of the same in human life. These rivers helped use to realize the importance of water which nourishes the flora and fauna of this r egion. As the members of an indigenous community which ruled over the Northern Part of the American continent, we consider ourselves as the owners of the land. This is utmost important for us because the problems related to our life in this region is interconnected with autonomy and ownership of fertile land. We are totally against the exploitation natural resources to fulfill the selfish motives of human beings. But most of the human beings are not yet ready to

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Data Communication & the Cloud Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

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Comparison of Available Psoriasis Treatments

Comparison of Available Psoriasis Treatments Although there is no available cure for psoriasis at present, there are different approaches to treat psoriasis and all you need to do is choose the best method.What works for your friend might not work for you.The severity of the condition, health and fitness of the sufferer, age, and other factors affect the extent of the needed treatment. Doctors often try several methods with utmost care in order to find the best one for a particular patient. Here are some of the options you have available for Psoriasis treatment 1. Natural treatments Lifestyle Change Once you have had psoriasis expect it to occur again. If you have an unhealthy lifestyle (drinking, smoking, staying up late, and the likes) making changes that are healthier is important.You know that stress, that includes lack of proper sleep, too much alcohol, and smoking can contribute to make your psoriasis worse or make it flare up again. If you are following a treatment now but keep on doing things that trigger psoriasis, don’t be surprised if your psoriasis evolves into a more dangerous form.Wear comfortable clothing that allows your skin to breathe.Try light fabrics like cotton because it is soft against your skin and will not irritate your psoriasis. Cotton also allows moisture in. Dietary recommendations that help control Psoriasis As you monitor your food, cut down on red meats or completely eliminate them from your diet if you can. Processed foods must go because they are packed with more chemicals than actual nutrients.You should also stay away from fatty foods.Passing up vegetables such as eggplant, tomatoes, potatoes, and peppers may aid in controlling psoriasis related inflammation.Make sure to eliminate these vegetables from your diet and don’t give in to the temptation, even if the eggplant lasagna looks succulent. Try eating foods that cleanse your liver and kidneys such as celery, fish, lettuce, turkey, fiber-rich fares, and lemons.The National Psoriasis Foundation includes soy, chocolate, nuts, and cranberries in their list of foods that prevent psoriasis outbreaks, or at least keep those outbreaks at a minimum.Drinking plenty of water can flush out toxins from your body, keep it well hydrated, and make you feel fresh all day. Although there are many power drinks that claim to keep you energized and well hydrated, nothing beats pure, plain water. Nutritional Supplements you should take daily You need to consider taking the necessary nutritional supplements along with a well-balanced diet.You can include vitamins A, D, and E in your daily diet. You can choose to include fish oil, primrose oil, or milk thistle in your diet. Taking selenium, lecithin, and folic acid can also help prevent psoriasis. 2. Direct Skin Treatments There are natural remedies that you can try if you have psoriasis. These remedies might not completely make your psoriasis go away but they can help lessen the irritation and discomfort that psoriasis causes.Prepare a bath of lukewarm (not hot) water.Add mineral oil, Epsom salt, milk, German chamomile, or olive oil (choose only one).Any of these choices can soothe itching and can penetrate the plaques and scales. Apply a doctor recommended moisturizer when you finish your bath for double benefits. Apply vegetable oil or olive oil on your skin that has psoriasis plaque to help loosen them. The oil provides the needed moisture to the skin. If you have psoriasis on your scalp, try massaging it with a few tablespoons of olive oil to loosen the plaque before you take your shower. Stick with these suggested oils and don’t do any experimenting using different oils because those might make the condition worse.These natural treatments compliment other treatments. Just make sure you ask your doctor first before proceeding. 3. Over the counter and Systematic Treatments Doctors often choose topical or Over-The-Counter (OTC) treatments for psoriasis. If your skin does not respond to the current treatment, another topical treatment can be selected.Topical treatments bought over-the-counter can be applied directly on the affected area of the skin. Topical treatments usually include lotions, creams, gels, and ointments.Topical treatments are always the first option for most doctors for treating mild to moderate cases of psoriasis. Topical or OTC treatments include: Dandruff shampoos. Vitamin D analogues Cortisone in ointment or cream form. Retinoids that can be applied on the skin. Coal tar. Lactic and salicylic acids. Anthralin. It is important to consult with your doctor first to select the right topical treatment for your psoriasis. Opting for a Systematic Treatment If you have a more severe form of psoriasis, or if a topical treatment is not helping, doctors usually turn to oral or injectable drugs.If your psoriasis is due to infection, taking antibiotics for the infection might also stop, or alleviate, your psoriasis. The medicines used for systematic treatments include: Retinoids. Immunomodulator drugs. Methotrexate. Thioguanine. Cyclosporine. Hyrdroxyurea. Keep in mind that you should always seek your doctor’s advice even if you have had psoriasis before. There is the possibility that your new psoriasis outbreak (if you failed to prevent psoriasis from re-occurring) may be different from your previous one. It is always best to be safe, meaning check in with your doctor to be sure the current outbreak can be treated as before. Don’t re-start a medication from a prior outbreak without first checking with your doctor. 4. Light Treatments Some psoriasis sufferers prefer light treatments over other methods simply because they are non-pharmaceutical and famous for being effective.As always, it is best to take the recommendation of your doctor to minimize any problems. Sunlight There are reports that some psoriasis sufferers achieve favorable results via sun exposure, but take note that too much sun exposure can do more harm than good. It is still best to consult with your doctor regarding the matter. Your doctor can give the correct time of day to get a beneficial amount of sunlight and tell you how long you can stay in the sun.Be sure to follow your doctor’s instructions to the letter. Via UVB Phototherapy Phototherapy is a perfect option for most individuals with moderate to severe inverse psoriasis, although other forms of psoriasis can also benefit from this treatment.UVB rays can slow the growth of skin cells for some psoriasis sufferers.Treatment involves a light box that creates faux UVB rays that are used within a specified amount of time for each session. There is a catch when using phototherapy. Your psoriasis might get worse temporarily before you experience the good part. Tell your doctor immediately if you have developed rashes after the treatment. Don’t even think of doing it on your own by using a tanning bed because there could be other adverse complications. The Goekerman Therapy This therapy combines UVB treatment with coal tar.The combination is more effective than doing either separately. Coal tar can make the skin more accessible to UVB light. This is ideal for use with mild to moderate psoriasis. Pulsed Dye Laser If other treatments fail to deliver positive results, your doctor may suggest trying a pulsed dye laser. This treatment tears down the tiny blood vessels in the areas that surround the plaque to cut off the flow of blood, reducing cell growth in the affected area. The only trouble with laser therapy is that it cannot cover large areas and may only be useful in areas that are smaller in size. Conclusion Your doctor help you find the right treatment after making a proper evaluation of your condition. It is best to take any advanced treatment under the supervision of your doctor.You are more likely to achieve favorable results.Now you know the things you need to do, and you know the options to consider for treating your psoriasis. It is time to act and you need to act to eliminate psoriasis from your life.

Common Sense Essay example -- essays research papers

In Common Sense, by Thomas Paine writes that America cannot recon ciliate with Great Britain. Paine gives many examples in this document of why America cannot reconsolidates with Great Britain. One of them is there is no advantages to being connected to Great Britain; only disadvantages can come out of the connection and the second idea is British government must sooner or later end.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the first point about the connection with the British, Paine states that America can benefit much more if it was not connected to the British for many reasons. One of them is trade with other European countries will decline or even go to ruins because if Europe breaks out into a war other countries will not trade with America because of the connection with the British. Second is the fact that the British does not protect us unless its in there interest or benefit to do so. Paine states that when the British fought off Spain and France, it was to protect Great Britain’s interest not Americas. He states this because if America was not benefiting Great Britain with trade and money or anything else; the British would not protect America. Paine’s third point is the fact that Britain is a monster. In this point he states that England brings tyranny to America because of the persecutions of emigrants that came to America in the first place and that Britain still pursues the descendants of the first emigrants.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In Thomas ...